Double taxation, both legal and economic, presents a significant challenge for taxpayers and governments. The primary goal of double taxation conventions (DTCs) is to eliminate or reduce this burden. One of the most crucial tools for achieving this is the mutual agreement procedure (MAP).
A MAP, as outlined in Article 25 of the OECD Model Tax Convention on Income and on Capital, allows the competent authorities of contracting states to resolve tax disputes that could result in double taxation, ensuring fairness and preventing double taxation in cross-border cases.
MAPs play a key role in resolving double taxation disputes between countries. Under a MAP, the tax authorities of two countries work together to resolve issues arising from the interpretation or application of tax treaties, especially in cases where the same income is taxed in both countries. They cover not only transfer pricing disputes but also extend to matters such as residency (Article 4) and passive income such as dividends, interest, and royalties (articles 10, 11, and 12).
A MAP allows taxpayers to seek relief from double taxation by requesting negotiations between tax authorities, ensuring that tax treaty provisions are applied correctly, and often providing an alternative to domestic litigation. The process promotes consistency in international taxation and supports cross-border trade and investment.
The OECD's BEPS Project, launched in 2015, significantly enhanced the role of MAPs. BEPS Action 14 made it a minimum standard for participating jurisdictions to ensure the resolution of treaty-related disputes in a timely and effective manner. As a result, MAPs have become an essential part of the tax dispute resolution framework globally, ensuring greater tax certainty and reducing instances of double taxation.
MAPs have become increasingly relevant in resolving transfer pricing disputes, especially with respect to corresponding adjustments. Corresponding adjustments often occur when one country increases a company’s taxable profits based on transfer pricing rules, leading to a potential mismatch in the other jurisdiction. A MAP facilitates negotiations between the tax authorities to adjust the profits of the associated enterprises involved, thus preventing double taxation.
MAPs may also have a complementary role with advance pricing agreements (APAs), which are pre-emptive agreements between tax authorities and taxpayers to establish transfer pricing terms for transactions in advance. While these agreements are built to provide certainty to taxpayers and reduce the risk of future disputes, disputes often occur post application, especially with unilateral APAs. The MAP process can help to enforce or resolve issues related to these agreements. For example, an APA may establish the transfer pricing method for a transaction, while a MAP may be used to resolve a dispute related to the application of that method.
Egypt has taken steps to integrate MAPs into its tax framework, particularly through its network of bilateral tax conventions. Egypt is party to 59 DTCs, some of which include provisions for MAPs. As indicated in the OECD’s 2024 peer review reports, Egypt’s implementation of MAPs is still in its early stages. The report highlights the need for Egypt to align a larger number of its DTCs with Article 25 of the OECD Model Tax Convention 2017, which governs MAPs, to expand the MAP mechanism across treaties, and enhance its effectiveness.
Additionally, the report recommends that Egypt amend a number of its tax treaties to comply with the OECD’s BEPS Action 14, ensuring its MAP framework aligns with international best practices for addressing cross-border tax disputes.
In addition to the observations highlighted in the OECD report, there are a few areas in which further development could strengthen Egypt’s MAP framework. Among these are the following:
The potential for a bilateral APA programme – Egypt currently has a unilateral APA programme. Establishing a bilateral APA programme can provide greater certainty for taxpayers regarding future transactions. Introducing such a programme would not only enhance Egypt's dispute prevention mechanisms but also align the country with international best practices.
The development of domestic MAP regulations – currently, there are no explicit domestic regulations for MAPs under Income Tax Law No. 91 of 2005 or Unified Tax Procedures Law No. 206 of 2020. While this may present an opportunity for future legislative developments, it also reflects Egypt’s readiness to adopt more formalised MAP procedures, ensuring smoother implementation of dispute resolution provisions in its DTCs.
While Egypt’s MAP framework is still developing, there is significant potential for growth. By aligning more of its tax treaties with the OECD’s BEPS Action 14 standards and expanding MAP provisions, Egypt can develop a more robust system for resolving cross-border tax disputes. This would not only help to prevent double taxation but also enhance Egypt’s appeal as a destination for foreign investment. Moreover, the introduction of a bilateral APA programme and a focus on corresponding adjustments would promote greater tax certainty, fostering a cooperative tax environment.
Establishing a domestic legal framework to regulate MAPs would substantially enhance the effectiveness of this mechanism, further strengthening Egypt’s commitment to international tax standards.
As Egypt continues to modernise its tax infrastructure and engage in international tax reform, the development of MAPs and related mechanisms will play a critical role in ensuring fair treatment for taxpayers and the efficient resolution of tax disputes.
